Respiratory Tract Infection
Community Acquired Pneumonia
CAP Severity Assessment
Community Acquired Pneumonia |
Markers of severity in CAP |
1. CURB-65 score : C onfusion (new onset) U rea >7mmol/L R R≥30/min B P - hypotension: sBP <90mmHg or dBP ≤60mmHg Age ≥ 65 years Clinical judgement is essential when deciding on the management of all patients with CAP. CURB-65 score should be used with caution in younger patients (<30 years) as it may underestimate severity in these patients. 2. Other indicators of severity include:
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Choosing antibiotics |
Consider:
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Comments |
These guidelines are NOT aimed at: (a) Patients with conditions such as cancer or immunosuppression including those admitted with pneumonia to specialist units such as oncology, haematology, palliative care, infectious disease units or AIDS units. (b) Adults with non-pneumonic LRTIs, including acute bronchitis and exacerbations of COPD. The most common pathogens in CAP are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae. Also S. aureus, Legionella pneumophilia, Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Investigations: Send blood cultures, sputum culture (requesting legionella culture), urine for pneumococcal antigen, (& legionella antigen in severe CAP and if epidemiological risk factors). In all patients with severe CAP send urine for legionella antigen, and test for HIV infection. |
CAP CURB-65 = 0-1
Mild CAP (CURB-65=0-1) |
Low Severity (CURB-65 = 0-1) <3% mortality |
Antibiotic |
First line : Amoxicillin 500mg-1gTDS PO Penicillin allergy: Doxycycline 200mg once daily loading dose on day 1 followed by 100mg once daily PO OR Clarithromycin 500mg BD PO (Caution as risk of QT prolongation; consider interaction with statins). |
Comments |
Duration: 5 days |
CAP CURB-65 = 2
Moderate CAP (CURB-65=2) |
Moderate Severity (CURB-65 = 2) 9% mortality |
Antibiotic |
First line: Amoxicillin 1g TDS PO or IV + Clarithromycin 500mg BD PO or IV (Excellent oral bioavailability). Caution as risk of QT prolongation; consider interaction with statins. OR Doxycycline 200mg loading dose on day 1 followed by 100mg once daily PO. Switch IV to oral when clinically appropriate. Penicillin allergy: Doxycycline 200mg once daily loading dose on day 1 followed by 100mg once daily PO. OR * Levofloxacin 500mg once daily (IV if PO administration not possible, excellent oral bioavailability). * Please read the HPRA Drug Safety Alert issued in 2018 and the HPRA Drug Safety Newsletter issued in 2023 highlighting restrictions on use of fluoroquinolones (e.g. ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin) due to the risk of disabling, long-lasting and potentially irreversible side effects (including tendon damage, QT prolongation, neuropathies and neuro psychiatric disorder). Use of fluoroquinolones in older patients, those with renal impairment, solid organ transplantation or on systemic corticosteroids increases the risk of tendon damage. |
Comments |
Duration: 5-7 days. |
CAP CURB-65 = 3-5
Severe CAP (CURB-65=3-5) |
High severity (CURB-65 = 3-5) 15 - 40% mortality. |
Antibiotic |
CURB-65=3 : Co-amoxiclav 1.2g TDS IV + Clarithromycin 500mg BD PO or IV (Excellent oral bioavailability). Caution as risk of QT prolongation; consider interaction with statins. (If legionella strongly suspected consider using * Levofloxacin instead, see below for more information).
CURB-65 = 4-5 or ICU assessment required, or penicillin allergy (NOT IgE-mediated /anaphylaxis/ severe reaction): Ceftriaxone 2g once daily IV + Clarithromycin 500mg BD PO or IV (Excellent oral bioavailability). Caution as risk of QT prolongation; consider interaction with statins. (If legionella strongly suspected consider using * Levofloxacin instead, see below for more information.) Oral stepdown: Review microbiology test results and tailor therapy accordingly. Discuss with microbiology team if required. If no pathogen identified consider oral stepdown to co-amoxiclav when appropriate to do so. In IgE-mediated/anaphylaxis/severe penicillin allergy, levofloxacin or doxycycline may be considered.
IgE-mediated/anaphylaxis/severe penicillin allergy: Levofloxacin 500mg BD PO or IV. If patient is colonised with or considered to be high risk for MRSA, consider adding Vancomycin or Teicoplanin to the above combinations while awaiting culture and screen results. (Please see Vancomycin / Teicoplanin dosing schedule). Levofloxacin and clarithromycin have excellent bioavailability – consider oral step down when clinically appropriate. * Please read the HPRA Drug Safety Alert issued in 2018 and the HPRA Drug Safety Newsletter issued in 2023 highlighting restrictions on use of fluoroquinolones (eg. ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin) due to the risk of disabling, long-lasting and potentially irreversible side effects (including tendon damage, QT prolongation, neuropathies and neuro psychiatric disorder). Use of fluoroquinolones in older patients, those with renal impairment, solid organ transplantation or on systemic corticosteroids increases the risk of tendon damage. |
Comments |
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Legionellosis
General points |
Risk factors: older age, smoking, chronic lung, cardiovascular or renal disease, immunocompromise. When to suspect: Legionnaire's disease usually presents as community acquired pneumonia but infection can also be hospital-acquired. Infection is usually associated with exposure to a water source contaminated with L. pneumophilia such as spas, hot tubs etc. Illness can present with multisystem features including GI symptoms, neurological features such as confusion, and low serum sodium in addition to features of respiratory tract infection. Investigations : Urine specimen for detection of Legionella antigen. Send serum for legionella antibody testing if high clinical suspicion and urinary antigen is not detected (Urine assay does not detect all Legionella serogroups). Request legionella culture on respiratory specimens (sputum, tracheal aspirate or BAL). Note: Legionellosis is a notifiable disease in Ireland. There is no evidence of person-to-person spread of Legionella pneumophilia. |
Antibiotics |
* Levofloxacin 500mg once daily (12 hourly if severe), PO or IV (Excellent oral bioavailability). Discuss with Microbiologist. IV route to be used if oral absorption is unreliable. Alternatives: Clarithromycin 500mg BD PO or IV if oral administration not possible OR Azithromycin 500mg once daily PO (Caution as risk of QT prolongation, consider interaction with statins). * Please read the HPRA Drug Safety Alert issued in 2018 and the HPRA Drug Safety Newsletter issued in 2023 highlighting restrictions on use of fluoroquinolones (eg. ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin) due to the risk of disabling, long-lasting and potentially irreversible side effects (including tendon damage, QT prolongation, neuropathies and neuro psychiatric disorder). Use of fluoroquinolones in older patients, those with renal impairment, solid organ transplantation or on systemic corticosteroids increases the risk of tendon damage. |
References |
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CAP and COVID-19
CAP and COVID-19 |
General points |
Inappropriate antibiotic use may reduce availability if used indiscriminately, and broad-spectrum antibiotics in particular may lead to Clostridioides difficile infection and antimicrobial resistance. Send investigations: eg. Swab for SARS CoV2-RNA, blood and sputum cultures, pneumococcal +/- legionella urinary antigens, CXR, FBC. Differentiating between COVID-19 pneumonia and bacterial pneumonia on clinical features alone can be difficult. Note many patients with COVID-19 may have a high CRP which does not by itself indicate the presence of a bacterial infection. As COVID -19 is a viral infection antibiotics are ineffective unless there is a bacterial co-infection which is thought to be uncommon (<10%). The risk of bacterial co-infection is likely increased in those requiring critical care and may present later in hospital as HAP or VAP. The following features may indicate the presence of bacterial pneumonia:
For the use of anti-viral and other agents in the treatment of COVID-19, please see most recent HSE Drugs Management Programme COVID 19 Guidelines and Protocols. |
Antibiotics in CAP and suspected/proven COVID-19 |
The following guidance from the HSE may be of use when deciding when to start antibiotics in these patients:
Review previous microbiology test results for history of respiratory tract colonisation or infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa or MDROs such as MRSA. In patients with immunosuppression or severe underlying lung disease use HAP (>5 days in hospital) guideline. Review all antibiotics following SARS CoV-2 RNA test result and/or at 24-48 hours. If following appropriate investigations there is no evidence of secondary bacterial infection, empirical antibiotics can be stopped. |
References |
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Hospital Acquired Pneumonia
HAP-within 5 days of admission
Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia -within 5 days of admission |
General Points |
HAP within 5 days of admission AND
For Ventilator-associated pneumonia see HAP >5 days post admission guideline.
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Antibiotics |
First line: Co-amoxiclav 625mg TDS PO or 1.2g TDS IV.
Penicillin allergy: Non-IgE mediated /non-severe reaction : Ceftriaxone 2g once daily IV.
IgE-mediated / anaphylaxis / severe reaction : * Levofloxacin 500mg PO or IV once daily (12 hourly if severe). (Add Metronidazole 500mg TDS IV or 400mg TDS PO in aspiration pneumonia). Note: treatment of aspiration pneumonia does not require addition of metronidazole to either piperacillin-tazobactam or co-amoxiclav as both provide sufficient anaerobic cover.
If patient is colonised with or considered to be high risk for MRSA, consider adding Vancomycin or Teicoplanin. (Please see Vancomycin / Teicoplanin dosing schedule). * Please read the HPRA Drug Safety Alert issued in 2018 and the HPRA Drug Safety Newsletter issued in 2023 highlighting restrictions on use of fluoroquinolones (eg. ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin) due to the risk of disabling, long-lasting and potentially irreversible side effects (including tendon damage, QT prolongation, neuropathies and neuro psychiatric disorder). Use of fluoroquinolones in older patients, those with renal impairment, solid organ transplantation or on systemic corticosteroids increases the risk of tendon damage. |
Comments |
Review IV antibiotics by 48h
Duration 5-7 days depending on clinical course. |
HAP- more than 5 days since admission
Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia- more than 5 days since admission |
General Points |
HAP > 5 days since admission OR any of the following:
Check previous microbiology test results in particular for history of MDROs (MRSA, ESBL, and CPE). Send sputum or tracheal aspirate for culture. Send blood cultures if febrile or sepsis. Consider Legionella. If suspected send urine for legionella antigen, sputum for Legionella culture and add clarithromycin empirically. See section on legionellosis. |
Antibiotics |
First line: Piperacillin-tazobactam 4.5g TDS/QDS IV +/- Gentamicin once daily IV. (Please see Gentamicin dosing schedule).
Penicillin allergy: Non-IgE mediated /non-severe reaction: Ceftriaxone 2g once daily IV+/- Gentamicin once daily IV. (Please see Gentamicin dosing schedule).
IgE mediated / anaphylaxis / severe reaction: * Levofloxacin 500mg PO or IV once daily (12 hourly if severe, excellent oral bioavailability ) +/- Gentamicin once daily IV (Please see Gentamicin dosing schedule). Add Metronidazole 500mg TDS IV or 400mg TDS PO in aspiration pneumonia. Note: treatment of aspiration pneumonia does not require addition of metronidazole to either piperacillin-tazobactam or co-amoxiclav as both provide sufficient anaerobic cover.
Use Amikacin instead of gentamicin if septic shock or if history of gentamicin resistant gram negative bacteria. (Please see Amikacin dosing schedule ). Review aminoglycoside use daily.
If patient is colonised with or considered to be high risk for MRSA, consider adding Vancomycin or Teicoplanin. (Please see Vancomycin / Teicoplanin dosing schedule)
If history of colonisation or infection with ESBL -producing organism, Meropenem may be indicated. Restricted agent, discuss with microbiology.
If known colonisation with CPE discuss with microbiology. * Please read the HPRA Drug Safety Alert issued in 2018 and the HPRA Drug Safety Newsletter issued in 2023 highlighting restrictions on use of fluoroquinolones (eg. ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin) due to the risk of disabling, long-lasting and potentially irreversible side effects (including tendon damage, QT prolongation, neuropathies and neuro psychiatric disorder). Use of fluoroquinolones in older patients, those with renal impairment, solid organ transplantation or on systemic corticosteroids increases the risk of tendon damage.
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Comments |
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References |
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Acute Exacerbation of COPD
Infective Exacerbation of COPD |
General Points |
Consider antibiotic therapy if 2 or more present:
OR severe exacerbation requiring assisted ventilation. If consolidation on CXR treat as CAP. Review previous sputum culture results in particular for evidence of colonisation/infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. |
Antibiotics |
First line: Amoxicillin 1g TDS PO OR if recent (<2/52) course of amoxicillin : Co-amoxiclav PO or IV depending on severity. Review need for IV therapy on a daily basis.
OR Doxycycline 200mg loading dose, then 100mg daily.
OR Clarithromycin 500mg BD PO (Consider potential for QT prolongation and drug interaction with statins).
Duration: 5-7 days. |
Comments |
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Influenza
HSE Guidance on the Use of Antiviral Agents for the Treatment and Prophylaxis of Influenza November 2022
This guidance document was compiled by the members of the Influenza Subgroup of the Scientific Advisory Committee of the Health Protection Surveillance Centre (HPSC). Available at www.hpsc.ie.
25 November 2022 v3.3
COVID-19
The ‘HSE Interim Guidance for the Pharmacologic Management of Patients with COVID-19 v5.0’ has expired and has been removed from the Acute Hospital Drug Management Programmes webpage. This document is replaced by:
- HSE Prescribing Protocols for Paxlovid use in the treatment of COVID-19
- HSE Prescribing Protocols Remdesivir use in the treatment of COVID-19
The prescribing protocols can be found here: https://www.hse.ie/eng/about/who/acute-hospitals-division/drugs-management-programme/covid-19/
Published: December 2023 Version Number: v1.0
If bacterial co-infection please refer to 'CAP and COVID-19' subsection.